BY: Timothy O. Sexton, Masters Student Department of Rangeland Resources College of Agricultural Sciences Oregon State University

Page

I. INTRODUCTION 1

II. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH 3

III. FORMULATED HYPOTHESES 4

IV. LITERATURE REVIEW

a) Introduction 6

i) Background 6

b) Ecosystem response to removal of

fire-killed trees 7

I) Erosion 7

ii) Insect Infestation 8

iii) Fire Hazard 9

iv) Regeneration 9

v) Microclimate 10

vi) Soils and Nutrients 12

c) Fire rehabilitation 13

i) Erosion control 13

ii) Noxious weeds 14

d) Interspecific competition - Pinus ponderosa

and Purshia tridentata with:

i) Native species 14

ii) Secale cereale 15

iii) Sitanion hystrix 15

iv) Festuca idahoensis 15

v) Sterile wheat 16

V. SELECTION OF STUDY SITE

a) Plant community effects of the Lone Pine Fire 16

b) Location 16

c) Climate 16

d) Geomorphology 16

e) Soils 16

e) Plant community 16

VI. METHODOLOGY

a) Treatments - Experiment #1 17

b) Treatments - Experiment #2 18

c) Measurements 19

i) Microclimate 19

ii) Soil sampling 19

iii) Vegetation sampling 19

iv) measurements outside fire area 20

v) Timelines 21

VII. STATISTICAL DESIGN 21

IX. LITERATURE CITED 22

X. APPENDICES

a) Vicinity Map 29

b) Block/Plot Map 30

c) Block/Plot, Belt Transect, and Microplot Layout 31

I. INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

Each year wildfires burn thousands of hectares of forest and range lands in the western United States. These fires exhibit a wide range of intensities and severities. The impacts of fire and wildfire suppression on forest and range ecosystems may last from a few months to centuries. Public land management agencies respond to these fires with a wide variety of strategies and tactics aimed at restoring the burned areas. In the past, many post-fire management actions were often more damaging to ecosystem processes than the fire. The direct monetary costs associated with these post-fire management actions can be quite high, sometimes exceeding the cost of suppressing the fire.

Following wildfires, there is a tremendous amount of public controversy over salvage-logging of burned trees (Henly, 1988). Many timber industry groups, public officials, and private individuals seek to harvest as many of the burned trees as quickly as possible. other groups and individuals oppose salvage logging or seek to limit it. These groups have strong opinions about the results of the actions that they favor and oppose. Yet a strong scientific basis does not exist to justify post-fire recovery efforts.

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This study will provide information concerning the ecological effects of some of the post-fire management strategies and tactics that are particularly controversial.

The Lone Pine Fire occurred during August, 1992 on the Chiloquin Ranger District of the Winema National Forest. The Chiloquin Ranger District is located in the Klamath Basin of south-central Oregon about 48 kilometers north of Klamath Falls. The fire burned 12,435 hectares (30,727 acres) of Pinus ponderosa, Pinus contorta and Juniperus occidentalis-dominated communities. Associated understory shrubs were primarily Purshia tridentata, Ceanothus velutinus, Arctostaphylos patula, and Artemisia tridentata. The grass component of these communities was dominated primarily by Stipa occidentalis.

Post-fire efforts are typically divided into rehabilitation and recovery. Rehabilitation is defined as those activities that attempt to reduce any further degradation to the fire area and adjacent areas (MacDonald, 1989). Most often it is associated with reducing soil erosion losses. Recovery actions on burned over areas are defined as those activities which accelerate return to pre-fire levels of productivity. In most Forest Service cases, this is evaluated by rating reforestation success. Reforestation is almost always preceded by salvage logging.

Emergency rehabilitation efforts on the Lone Pine Fire area included seeding slopes with sterile wheat (sterile hybrid of Triticum and Agropyron) in an attempt to prevent erosion and noxious weed invasion. Other adjacent forests (e.g.; Fremont National Forest) seeded burned areas with Secale cereale (cereal rye).

Long-term recovery efforts on the Lone Pine Fire area include salvage logging about 8,000 hectares. In addition, the Forest plans to plant several thousand hectares of Purshia tridentata, Pinus ponderosa, and Pinus contorta (U.S.D.A., 1992).

II. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The overall goal of the this research project is to describe the ecological effects of land management practices currently implemented following wildfire in south-central Oregon. These data should provide information and management implications for refining post-fire recovery prescriptions in the future.

This research is divided into two experiments. These are:

Experiment #1 Objectives - Effects of Salvage Logging on Survival and Growth of Pinus ponderosa and Purshia tridentata Seedlings

To quantify the effects of salvage logging (overstory removal of dead or fire-damaged conifers) on (1) survival and growth of Pinus ponderosa and Purshia tridentata seedlings; (2) site microclimate, measuring relative humidity (%), ambient air temperature (C) , and soil temperature (ºC) ; (3) soil moisture; (4) soil nutrients (N, P, K, S, C, C, Mb, Fe, and organic matter content); (5) soil bulk density; and (6) species composition (repopulation of the site by native and exotic species).

Experiment #2 Objectives - Effects of Post-Fire Grass Seeding on species composition and Pinus ponderosa and Purshia tridentata survival and Growth

To quantify the effects of planting Sitanion hystrix, Festuca idahoensis, Secale cereale, or sterile wheat on (1) survival and growth of P. ponderosa and P. tridentata seedlings; (2) species composition (repopulation by native species); and (3) prevention of noxious weed invasion.

III. FORMULATED HYPOTHESES

Experiment #1 Hypothesis:

Salvage logging forested areas following wildfire results in

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significant differences in site microclimate, soil moisture, and soil nutrient dynamics. microclimate, and associated soil moisture regimes will be significantly different between salvage and non-salvage areas. This will occur due to removal of forest structure that moderates temperature, relative humidity, and vapor pressure deficit extremes.

Survival and growth of Pinus ponderosa and Purshia tridentata seedlings, and the species composition in general will be significantly different in salvage areas compared to non-salvage areas. This will be due to the relative capabilities of plant species to survive and grow under wider fluctuations of temperature and concomitant changes in relative humidity, soil moisture, soil nutrients, and other disturbances.

Experiment #2 Hypothesis:

The establishment of Sitanion hystrix, Festuca idahoensis, Secale cereale, and sterile wheat with Pinus ponderosa and Purshia tridentata for erosion control will result in significant differences in survival and growth of P. ponderosa and P. tridentata seedlings. In addition, post-fire succession and species composition will be influenced. These differences will be due to varying levels of competition between the seeded grasses and the shrub and tree seedlings and all other species. The seeded grasses will exhibit different levels of competition.

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S.cereale will provide the highest level, followed by S. hystrix, sterile wheat, and finally F. idahoensis.

IV. LITERATURE REVIEW

INTRODUCTION

Wildfires have historically been an integral ecological disturbance process of the Pinus ponderosa communities of south-central Oregon (Agee, 1990). Fire return intervals of 5-15 years (Martin and Johnson, 1979), 15-20 years (Miller and Keen, 1960),18 years (Keen, 1940) were determined for these communities for presettlement times in south-central Oregon. Fire has been excluded from much of the landscape since the early years of the twentieth century. The last broadscale occurrence of fire on the Klamath Indian Reservation/Chiloquin Ranger District was during the summer of 1918, when about 80,000 hectares burned (Chiloquin Ranger District, 1992). The Lone Pine Fire of August, 1992 was the largest fire since 1918, burning approximately 12,500 hectares (Chiloquin Ranger District, 1992a). Natural forest fuels have increased to a great degree during this 74 year fire-free interval. In a similar forest type Bork (1985) determined that this era of fire suppression was the longest fire-free interval in the past 3 - 4 centuries. The large amount of fuels, coupled with the seventh year of a severe drought resulted in

unprecedented fire intensities and severities. Because of the extent of the fire and the severe ecosystem effects, as well as the high timber value of the trees "restoration" efforts were given high priority by federal land managers (U.S.D.A., 1992a).

Much of the rationale given for why post-fire salvage logging is necessary (as part of fire restoration) hinges on the commodity value of the timber. Barker (1989) presented a list of reasons why he considered salvage logging important and placed economic benefits at the top. He pointed out that, currently, planting seedlings to reforest the burned area is funded by timber sale receipts. Many collateral projects (also funded by the sale of fire-killed or damaged trees) are undertaken with the intention of "improving" the site for specific management objectives. Examples include winter range improvement for Odocoileus hemionus (mule deer) populations (U.S.D.A., 1992).

ECOSYSTEM RESPONSE TO REMOVAL OF FIRE-KILLED TREES

Erosion

It has been suggested that salvage logging can reduce erosion through scattering logging slash across the burned area to reduce surface flow (Poff, 1989). In addition, salvage operations eliminate the standing dead stems that may collect rain and aid in coalescing small drops into large drops and concentrating the runoff at the base of the bole (Ibid.). These harvest operations have also been hypothesized to improve site conditions through

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disruption of hydrophobic layers in the soil (Ibid.). In contrast to Poff's theories of benefits derived from salvage logging, several studies have demonstrated increased erosion and soil disturbance as a result of salvage operations (Swanson, et.al., 1989). Klock (1975) compared five different post-fire salvage logging methods on a P. ponderosa site in eastern Washington. There were district differences in soil disturbance and erosion from the various logging systems. However, even with helicopter logging (the least disturbing method) 12% of the logged area soil was disturbed. Conventional tractor systems disturbed almost 75% of the area and caused erosion on over 30% of the area. Other studies have demonstrated adverse soil structure effects from logging that increase erosion (Steinbrenner and Gessel, 1955) and reduce reforestation success (Garrison and Rummell, 1951). Dyrness (1972) and Woolridge (1960) evaluated effects on soil from logging with low impact systems (balloon and skyline). Both researchers noted damage to the soil. None of these studies noted any beneficial effects to the soil from logging.

Insect Infestation

Salvage logging may prevent endemic populations of pine beetle (Dendroctonus spp.) from becoming epidemic in the fire-killed stand and spreading to adjacent unburned stands (Moore, 1992). Mitchell and Martin (1980) asserted that the major cause of recent outbreaks of Dendroctonus brevicomis (western pine beetle) was wildfires. Miller and Keen (1960) advised that D. brevicomis population responses to wildfire vary considerably. They may

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exhibit very little to very large increases after fire. The authors correlated increasing crown scorch with increases in beetle-caused mortality. Where increases were high (in several documented cases increases were over 1,000%) they first inhabited fire-killed trees, then moved to adjacent stands of live trees (Ibid.).

Fire Hazard

Salvage logging also results in the reduction of fuels on the burned-over site. Many past fire areas have experienced reburns several years after the initial fire when standing dead material falls to the ground and becomes available fuel for surface fires (Pyne, 1982). This material increases fire severity, and is more difficult to construct fireline through, making these fires more difficult to control (Agee and Huff, 1987; Pyne, 1984). Although salvage logging reduces fuel loading, the removal of overstory trees increases afternoon temperatures and windspeeds, and decreases relative humidity (Geiger, 1975). This increases relative fire danger on the site (Rothermel, 1983).

Regeneration

Puddy (Private conversation, 1993) suggests that removal of firekilled trees prior to seedling plantings prevents any future damage to regeneration from falling snags. In an evaluation of the Grider Burn on the Klamath National Forest, Schultz and Kliejunas (1981) also suggested that sang fall could damage seedlings if the area was not salvage logged. Seedling damage due to tree fall after wildfires has not been quantified

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scientifically.

Microclimate

Microclimate changes stemming from logging have been documented on many sites (Hallin, 1967;1968; Shearer, 1967; Herring, 1970; Ryker and Potter, 1970). The primary effects of overstory removal on microclimate are: (1) increased daytime solar radiation at the surface; (2) increased surface heat loss at night (Hungerford, 1980); (3) decreased afternoon relative humidity (Miller, et. al., 1983); and decreased soil moisture (Fowler and Helvey, 1981). P.ponderosa seedling survival and growth is adversely affected by all of the above-listed microenvironmental changes (Ryker, 1976). On a study near Flagstaff, Arizona Haase (1986) noted 34% mortality of P. ponderosa seedlings due to lack of water.

Soil surface temperature is directly related to seedling temperature (Silen, 1960). Lethal high temperature for first-year conifer seedlings ranges from 500 C to 600 C (Hare, 1961) . At the lower portion of the range mortality is dependent on length of exposure (Levitt, 1980). Hungerford and Babbitt (1987) found that clearcutting produced significantly more days and longer exposure periods of lethal surface temperatures (>500 C) than non-harvest areas. Surface temperature below -5º C has been correlated with 50% mortality in first year P. ponderosa seedlings (Cochran and Berntsen, 1973). In a three year study in Montana, minimum temperatures in clearcuts were compared with minimums in adjacent

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uncut forests. Temperatures dropped below -5º C (lethal

temperature threshold) on 16 - 26 % of the days in May through September on clearcuts. In contrast, the adjacent forested area experienced only one minimum temperature below -5º C (Hungerford and Babbitt, 1987). Herring (1970) reported higher soil moisture content on a clearcut site than on an adjacent forest site. However, this was attributed to higher rates of evapotranspiration in the uncut forest. It is likely that a dead, non-transpiring overstory will act as a water reservoir by storing water during rain and high humidity events and slowly releasing it during dry periods (Boddy, 1983). Wind has been shown to increase evaporation of water from plants, woody debris, and soil (Geiger, 1975). Increased winds at the plant and soil surface as a result of overstory removal will decrease the boundary layer, reducing resistance to exchange (Ibid.). This could result in a potential increase in soil moisture losses during hot, windy days in a salvage logged area (Hungerford, 1980). Water stress initially triggers stomatal closure, reducing or halting photosynthesis (Geiger, 1991) and carbon allocation. Eventually, water stress may result in plant mortality (if prolonged or severe) through inability to absorb nutrients such as phosphorus, exhaustion of reserves, and breakdown of proteins (Levitt, 1972). In summary, removal of the structure afforded by fire-killed trees in salvage operations causes greater extremes in surface temperatures and reduces the water retention

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characteristics of the site. These factors directly affect the survival and growth potential of P. ponderosa seedlings.

Soils and Nutrients

Salvage logging can affect soil structure in several ways. Compaction, displacement, and increased susceptibility to frost heave (through microclimate changes) are a few of the effects that can reduce seedling survival and growth (Harvey, et. al., 1989). Of the soil problems listed above, the pumice soils of the Lone Pine Fire area are most influenced by increased susceptibility to frost heaving (Carlson, 1979).

The Lone Pine Fire burned with great severity, in that high percentages of the surface litter and duff were consumed. The pumice soils of this area are characterized by low natural fertility, with up to 80% of the total soil nutrients in the upper 15 cm of soil (Carlson, 1979). Wind erosion of ash removed much of this soil and surface nutrient pool. Nutrient mass balance has been quantified for many situations (Vitousek and Melillo, 1979, Stark, 1979), but very little has been documented on burned-over P. ponderosa communities in the south-central Oregon pumice zone. Most studies of harvesting on unburned sites have concluded that removal of only the bole does not adversely affect nutrient mass balance over reasonable rotations (Likens, et. al., 1978). Current approaches to salvage logging in south-central Oregon utilize equipment that cuts and hauls whole trees

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to a loading site. On a burned-over area such as the Lone Pine fire, this effectively removes all aboveground nutrient capital from the site. In assessing nutrient mass balance, one must consider below-ground pools, rock weathering, atmospheric inputs, and biological processes such as nitrogen fixation (Waring and Schlesinger, 1985). Nitrogen fixing understory vegetation such as Ceanothus velutinus and Purshia tridentata are common in the fire area. However, it has been suggested that very little nitrogen fixation actually occurs due to inadequate supplies of cobalt in the eastern Oregon P.ponderosa zone (Waring, personal conversation, 1993). Cobalt is a necessary element for formation of nitrogenase, the enzyme essential for nitrogen fixation (Schlesinger, 1991).

FIRE REHABILITATION

Erosion Control

In recent years, there has been much controversy over post-fire management activities known as "rehabilitation". Among the concerns is grass seeding that is implemented with the objective of reducing erosion and flood damage (Silverman, 1989, Miles, et.al., 1989). Seeding exotic grasses to reduce/prevent erosion following wildfire has been a common practice (Ruby, 1989). This practice has been questioned because it may influence succession dynamics or prevent the return of native species. In addition, it is not always effective at reducing erosion (Taskey, et.al.,

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1989, Gautier, 1982, Gautier, 1983).

Wind erosion may remove much of the ash from fire sites within the first few weeks after the fire (Kauffman, et.al., 1993.) The wind removal of nutrient-rich ash, may represents a significant loss of nutrients which could affect potential site productivity (Weaver, 1974) .

Noxious Weeds

Noxious weeds oftentimes invade disturbed sites (Roche and Roche, 1991). They have greater success in areas that have no overstory to intercept light and reduce wind (Brothers and Spingarn, 1992) such as areas that have been logged. They can reduce establishment, growth, and survival of desirable species through competition for scarce resources. Additionally, they may cause local extinctions of specific native species, and changes in relative abundance of all species (Temple, 1990). If native species are weakened by any number of environmental conditions (water stress, nutrient deficiencies, weather extremes) noxious weeds may outcompete them (Gillis, 1992). Seeding burned sites with grasses can prevent noxious weed invasions simply by occupying the site (Borman, et. al., 1991).

INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION - PINUS PONDEROSA AND PURSHIA TRIDENTATA WITH SITANION HYSTRIX, SECALE CEREALE, FESTUCA IDAHOENSIS, AND STERILE WHEAT

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Native species may not compete well with some of the grass species that are planted to prevent erosion and noxious weed invasion (Griffin, 1982). Consequently, while erosion may be reduced, some native species may be eliminated from the site. Other concerns about grass seeding include competition that the grass provides against managed species such as P.tridentata (Holmgren, 1956) and Pinus ponderosa (McDonald, 1986). In addition to competing for water and nutrients, grass residues may reduce initial root growth of P. ponderosa through phytotoxic residues (Rietveld, 1975).

Of the four grass species in this research, Secale cereale is likely the most competitive and productive. It germinates during the winter and can flower seven weeks after initiation of growth. Over 10,000 kilometers of roots have been tallied for a single four month old individual (Raven, et. al., 1986).

Sitanion hystrix is commonly found in the P.ponderosa communities of south-central Oregon on intact and disturbed sites. The continuous root growth exhibited by this species gives it a competitive advantage over other pioneer species. It is the only bunchgrass capable of natural establishment in Bromus tectorum and Taeniatherum asperum communities, which testifies to it's competitive abilities (Young and Miller, 1983).

Festuca idahoensis is native to the Lone Pine Fire area. It is

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present in old growth P.ponderosa communities (Volland, 1985). It matures more slowly than either S. hystrix or S. cereale.

Sterile wheat is a hybrid of Triticum and Agropyron. It has been marketed as a "stabilizing or cover crop to aid in the establishment of perennials on reclaimed land" (Glen, 1992).

III. SELECTION OF STUDY SITE

The study site areas were selected based upon uniformity of prefire plant community, similar slope, aspect and elevation. In addition, all vegetation on all sites was top-killed in the Lone Pine Fire.

The legal locations for the study areas are: Willamette Meridian, Township 34 South, Range 10 East, section 34, and Township 35 South, Range 10 East, section 3.

The climate of the area is typified by warm, dry summers and cold, moist winters. Annual precipitation in the general area of the blocks is approximately 40 cm. Killing frosts have occurred every month of the year, but generally do not occur between May and September. The study sites are located on the lower third of the southeast slope of Calimus Butte. Prevailing winds are from the west and southwest. Consequently, these sites are somewhat sheltered from those winds. Elevation ranges from 1,460

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Preliminary unpublished results from this study indicate that burned areas which were salvaged had less than half of the above ground new growth compared to burned areas which were not salvaged. The salvage logged areas also showed a significant loss of vascular plant biodiversity. Informal observations hinted that there was more mule deer use in non-salvaged areas. This effect should be examined scientifically. Though the results are not completely calculated for statistical significance there is also indication that natural regeneration of ponderosa pine and bitterbrush was less effective in the salvage logged burned areas than in the unsalvaged burn areas. Timothy Sexton 3/17/95 personal communication.